Modern European Sceptical Rationalism:
Descartes:
Descartes was a philosopher effected greatly by 'new physics' and astronomy. He doesn't not accept foundational ideas of previous thinkers, but tried to constructed a complete philosophic eclifice. Advancements in science helped Descartes with this and gave him new confidence.
'Le monde' is a unpublished by Descartes, he believed this book laid out two doctrines:
1. the earths rotation.
2. the infinity of the universe.
The books of Descartes can be broken down into two main topics; mathematics and science.
In terms of maths he was considered to be a great contributor as he invented coordinate geometry, but not in its final form. he used the analytical method, which supposes a problem solved and examines the consequences of the supposition. He also applied algebra to geometry.
Where science is concerned, Descartes hoped to make a discovery in medicine. He thought the bodies of animals and men as machines. He differentiated between the two by considering animals to be the automata, governed by the laws of physics devised of feeling or consciousness. Men are different because they had a soul and it is the soul that creates a connection between vital spirits, because of this the soul and the body work together. From this he takes that the total quantity of motion in the universe is constant, and so it cannot be affected by the soul; but can alter the direction of the motion of the vital spirit, hence, other parts of the body. The actions of mind of matter that Descartes imagined is proved impossible, and was rejected by Spinoza as physicists discovered the conservation of momentum, according to which the total quantitative motion in the world at any given direction is constant.
Descartes' theory appeared to have two merits:
1) it made the soul, in a sense, independent from the body, since it was never acted on by the body.
2) it allowed the general principle; 'one substance cannot act on another.'
To him there were on two substances; mind and matter. They were so dissimilar to him that interaction between the two seemed inconceivable.
In terms of mechanics, Descartes accepts the first law of motion, according to which a body itself will have constant velocity in straight line. Descartes then worked out the formation of vortices: round the sun there is an immense vortexs in the plenum which carries the planet around with it. The theory is ingenious, but cannot explain why planetary orbits are elliptical, not circular.
The two most important books Descartes wrote were 'discourse method' and 'meditations', the content of both overs laps and they explain the method of 'Cartesian doubt' (I THINK, THEREFORE I AM) which begins by 'doubting everything he can manage to doubt' he then regulates his conduct by commonly received rules. He begins with scepticism in regard to the senses. Cartesian doubt outlines mind, and how it is more certain than matter and that the mind of an individual more certain to them. This brings up the principle 'All things that we conceive very clearly and very distinctly are true' though Descartes accepts that this is very hard to know.
He also develops a theory of knowledge, and claims that knowledge of external things must be by the mind not the sense. This leads to different kinds of ideas. The commonest of mistakes, he says, its to think that ideas are like outside things. The following outline the types of ideas:
1) those that are innate.
2) those that are foreign and come from without.
3) those that are invented by me.
The second kind of idea are outside objects. We suppose this because nature teaches us to think so. Sometimes there can be two different ideas to the same kind of external object. Though, these considerations have not disposed of the sceptical arguments which threw doubt on the existence of the external world. This is only done by proving God. Once God is proved, everything is said to fall into place.
The philosophy of Descartes was important because it bought very near completion to the dualism of mind and matter which began with plato and was developed by the christian philosophy.
Spinoza:
Spinoza wrote the books 'Ethics', 'Tractatus', 'Theological politicus' and 'Tractatus politicus'. Many of the books explore political theories derived from Hobbes' idea of the state of nature. Spinoza holds the idea that there is no right or wrong in the state of nature, for wrong means there must be disobeying of the laws. He also believed the sovereign can do no wrong, and agrees with Hobbes, that the church should be subordinate to the state. Though he disagrees with Hobbes in thinking democracy is the most natural form of government and that not all rights are to be sacrificed to the sovereign - freedom of is opinion most important.
The book 'Ethics' deals with the following matters; metaphysics, psychology of passions and the will, and an ethic based on proceeding metaphysics and psychology.
Metaphysics is a modification of Descartes; psychology is reminiscent of Hobbes, but ethics is original. Spinozas metaphysical system, similar to Parmenides, highlights the existence of one substance 'God or nature', nothing finite is self subsistence. He believes the soul and separate pieces of matter are adjectival. They are not things, but aspects of divine being. Spinoza's belief in the existence of God relies on the idea 'there can only be on being who is wholly positive, and he must be absolutely infinite.
According to him, everything is ruled by an absolute logical necessity. No such thing in the mental sphere or chance in the physical world. Everything that happens is a manifestation of Gods inscrutable nature, and it is logically impossible that events should be other than they are. Though, it appears that we cannot accept his method, but that is because we cannot accept his metaphysics. We cannot believe that interconnections of the parts of the universe are logical, because we hold that scientific laws are to be discovered by observation not logic.
Spinoza also presents his own theory of emotion, also discussed in Ethics as 'passions'. He believes that passions distract us and obscure our intellectual vision of the world. 'Everything' we are told 'in so far as it is in itself endeavors to preserve to preserve in its own being.' hence love, hate and strife. Spinoza does not object to all emotions, only passions (those which appear to ourselves to be passive in the power of outside forces). From this idea, we are bought to the proposition of 'intellectual love for God', which contains nothing negative, making it part of a whole, where fragmentary things, so separated are thought to appear as bad. Spinoza carries the belief that God is not effected by any emotion of pleasure or pain. Love that we have toward god must hold the chief place in the mind. Which brings forth the understanding of everything as part of God is the love of God. When all objects are reffered to by God, the idea of God will fully occupy the mind.
very good
ReplyDelete