History and context of journalism - Revision notes 2

Karl Marx;

-          Sensation or perception is an interaction between subject and object; the bare object, apart from the activity of the percipient, is a mere raw material, which is transformed in the process of becoming known.

-          Both subject and object, the knower and thing known, are in the continual process of mutual adaptation. He calls this the dialectical because it is never fully complete.

-          He denies ‘sensation’ – we only notice things as part of the process is acting with reference to them and any theory which leaves this out is a misleading abstraction.

Philosophy of history;

-          Believes un the dialectical process.

-          But differs from Hegel; Hegel believed the motive force call the spirit, which causes human history to develop accordingly to stages of the dialectic set forth in the ‘Logic.’

-          Marx believed it is not a spirit driving history, instead it is just inevitiable – it is man’s reaction to matter, of which the most important part is the mode of production.

-          His idea of materialism, here, becomes economics.

-          Politics, religion, philosophy and art of any epoch in human history are outcomes of its methods of production and, lesser extent, of distribution.

-          Marx substituted class, for Hegels idea of nations, to be the driving force of the dialectical.

-          This is outlined to its greatest extent in the Communist Manifesto.

-          Marx’s revolutionary ideas are identifiable in his similarities with Rousseau, in that property is the cause of class struggle and is what caused us to be civilized. The fact the proletariat are unable to possess property,

Communist manifesto;

-          Suggests that class struggle 'sprouted' from the 'ruins' of a feudal society.

-          He believed there to be a hostile divide in society, one in which the bourgeois were in possession of the proletarian; forming a new kind of oppression and struggle. These two classes were seen by Marx to be directly against each other.

-          Historical materialism for Marx shows that class struggle and desire for high exchange value have given power to the bourgeoisie, gradually, over time and that he believes this to be the reason for historical and social progression to its current state of capitalism.

-          The bourgeois ' has resolved personal worth into exchange value,' and have created a false consciousness of the proletariat through politics and religion, undermining and exploiting them further.  He believed that he bourgeoisie could not exist 'without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production,’

-          He says the bourgeois have ‘succeeded in gathering masses within the population, centralizing the means of production and concentrating property in few hands.’ Creating the Proletariat.

-          The drive for the bourgeois to create capital through the exploitation of the proletariat means the proletariat lose character; they are seen as machines to produce profitable commodities, even though they could be considered commodities themselves. 

-          He believed that the development of industry and the growing need for capital would lead the proletariat into becoming class conscious and, in doing so, will go through many changes during the progression to revolution and gaining the means of production through the overthrowing of bourgeois

-          For Marx, capitalism was inevitably doomed to collapse because it held flaws within it that would ultimately destroy itself; the proletariat will only speed up the process.

Weber – Bureaucracy;

-          Is rule from a desk or office by written documentation, and a servant of government.

-          Weber disregards bureaucracy being neutral and suggests every bureaucracy has its own interests. It is merely a means to give policy direction.

-          The modern bureaucracy came from the middle ages; kings riding on horseback with clergy men recording the journey and sending it to correspondents.

-          Weber believes armies have become bureaucratized.

-          He points out, educational institutions, churches and other institutions have a bureaucracy. They all have staff for keeping records and communications.

-          It is a pervasive feature of modern society.

-          Weber sets out an ‘ideal type’ for bureaucracies; characterised by divisions of labour trough rules, impersonally applied, and staffing by full time professionals who have no ownership to the means of administration; jobs, funds, and a salary aren’t based on labour value.

-          Bureaucrats are even further removed from property because there are no longer ‘prebends’; instead there is a salary.

-          The highest value of a bureaucracy is reliable rule following.

-          Modern bureaucrats do no own their jobs – Weber suggests a parallel with capitalist productive enterprise. Which he then compares to soldiers formally owning their weapons, now they don’t, much like workers being separated from their means of production.

-          Division of labour requires stability of staff; so the bureaucracy want educated recruits. This where Weber points out credentialism and that formal educational qualifications are an obsession of the bureaucracy.

Types of legitimate authority;

-          Weber treats bureaucracy under this heading, of which there are three types of authority.

-          Charismatic; it is regarded as legitimate because followers are personally devoted to the gifted leader.

-          Traditional authority; regarded legitimate because everyone has always obeyed the person in position of leader – no one thinks of disrupting them.

-          Rational authority; is the rule of law. It exists in a community where there is respect for the law or where the law is constituted legitimate.

-          The bureaucracy exists as this form of authority. It is seen as the most efficient way of implementing the rule of law, rules are recorded, studied and applied in a reliable way to individual cases.

-          Weber see rule of law to be rational because he believes expediency and rational values are the main forms of rationality and it employs both to gain obedience.

-          Though he views it as efficient he seen bureaucracy as a ‘distasteful triumph’ and identified negative impacts bureaucracy may have on society.

-          He believed that there will be cultural exhaustion through the rationalisation of religion, that the principle of formal equality will eventually rob each individual of nobility and any artistic genius,

-          Weber views bureaucracy in a similar way that Marx views Capitalism. Its spread is inevitable and will affect all areas of life. Though Marx insists capitalism can be overthrown for the good of the people, Weber believes and accepts bureaucracy is inescapable.

Ideal types of sociological organisation;

-          Socialism, nationalism, liberalism etc. and that behind them is a method and hypothesis and successive approximation of truth. He then compared this to social reality and came to the conclusion that there is no absolute knowledge but it is possible to be honest and have reason to able the belief.

-          This is known as agnosticism.

-          He furthered his ideas of sociological ideals with his analysis of what he what he believed to be four types of fundamental social action;

1.          Instrumental – the belief that our actions are rational in order to achieve goodness; going to university will generally get you a good job.

2.          Value – the idea of doing something because it is accepted to be good practice, and is again an example of rationalisation.

3.          Affectual – Something we do for emotional reasons.

4.          Traditional – this is something we do because society has always done it.

History and Context of Journalism - Revision Notes;

German Idealism; 

KANT – Ethics

-          Mataphysics of morals – it contains a ‘categorical imperative ’

-          He despises utilitarianism or any doctrine where morality has been given a purpose outside itself.

-          All moral concepts have their seat and origin wholly ‘a priori’ in reason.

-          The essence of morality is derived from the concept of law; for everything in nature acts according to laws – only rational being has the power of acting according to the idea of law – ie will.

-          The idea of an objective principle in so far as it compelling to the will, its called the command is called an imperative.

-          There are two imperatives – hypothetical and categorical;

-          Hypothetical; ‘you must do so and so if you wish to achieve such – and – such an end’

-          Categorical; a certain kind of action is objectively necessary, without regard to any end. This is synthetic and a priori.

-          Character is deducted by law; the categorical imperative is a single one – ‘act only accordingly to maxim by which you can at the same time will that it shall become a general law.’

-          OR ‘act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a general natural law.’

KANT – Theory of Space and Time (noumenal and phenomenal)

-          The immediate objects of perception are due partly to external things and partly to our own perceptive appearance.

-          Kant doesn’t question that our sensations have cause, which he calls ‘thing in themselves’ or the noumenal.

-          What appears to us as in perception, which he calls the phenomenon, consists of two parts; that due to the object (sensation) and the due to our subjective apparatus which is manifold to be ordered in certain relations – the form of the phenomenon.

o   The certain relation is not itself ‘sensation’ and therefore not dependent upon the accident of environment; it is always the same since we carry it with us and it is a priori in the sense that it is not dependent on experience.

-          A pure form of sensibility is called a ‘pure intuition’ and there are two forms -  space and time – one for outer sensations the other inner.

-          To prove space and time are a priori Kant classes two arguments; one metaphysical the second epistemological (transcendental). 

-          The transcendental argument* concerning space is derived from geometry. Kant thinks geometry is not derived from experience, BUT the only way in which intuition can anticipate what will be found in the object is if it contains only the form of sensibility, antedating subjectivity all the actual impressions.

o   The object of sense must obey geometry, because it is concerned with our ways of perceiving and therefore cannot perceive otherwise.

-          TIME is essentially the same argument, though arithmetic replaces geometry with the contention that counting takes time. 

KANT – The Transcendental deduction*

-         The transcendental deduction does not avoid the fact or objectivity of time and cause, but does, in its consideration of a possible logic of the a priori, attempt to make the case for the fact of subjectivity. 

-          Kant states, "although all our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises from experience" According to Kant, a priori knowledge is transcendental ( beyond ordinary or common experience, but not beyond human knowledge), or based on the form of all possible experience, while a posteriori knowledge is empirical, based on the content of experience.

-         Unlike the empiricists, Kant thinks that a priori knowledge is independent of the content of experience; unlike the rationalists, Kant thinks that a priori knowledge, in its pure form, that is without any empirical content, is knowledge limited to the deduction of the conditions of possible experience.

-          These a priori, or transcendental conditions, are seated in one's cognitive faculties, and are not provided by experience in general or any experience in particular. 

-     He claimed that a  human subject would not have the kind of experience that it has were these a priori forms not in some way constitutive of him as a human subject. For instance, he would not experience the world as an orderly, rule-governed place unless time and cause were operative in his cognitive faculties.

HEGEL – the dialectic

-          Returned belief in the unreality of separateness; the world is not a collection of hard units – whether atoms or souls – each completely self-subsistent.

-          The apparent self-subsistence  of infinite things to him were an illusion; he held that nothing is ultimately and completely real except the whole.

-          The WHOLE is not a simple substance but a complex system of the sort that we should call and organism.

-          The separate things the world is composed of are not simply and illusion; each has greater or lesser degree of reality and its reality consists in an aspect of a whole which is what is seen to be when viewed truly.

-          This is naturally a disbelief of time and space as such, because these involve separateness and multiplicity.

-          Hegel asserts the real is rational and rational is real. Though he does not mean the empirical use of the real; the observed. He means after the apparent character has been transformed by viewing them as an aspect of a whole – then they are rational.

-          He believed that the only thing that does not change is that things change. He came up with the idea that all things have a “geist” or ghost form - though things change/decay, it is still that thing because of its geist.

THE WHOLE – ‘the absolute’

-          He emphasises logic – the nature of reality can be deducted from sole consideration that it cannot be self-contradictory.

-          The dialectic.

-          Logic is metaphysics – any ordinary predicate (conclusion) taken from the whole of realty, turns out to be contradictory.

-          The dialectic – thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis.

o   Any suggested predicate of the absolute to the conclusion of the dialectic is driven by the force of logic.

-          There is an underlying assumption that nothing can be true unless it is about reality as a whole.

-          Relatives aren’t considered to be real – an uncle is not the absolute, it relies on other factors??

-           There must be a basis of traditional logic in the underlying assumption, which assumes every proposition has a subject and predicate.

-          Everything except the whole has relations to outside things and what in fact only the whole is real.

-          Knowledge as a whole has the triadic movement of the dialectic – it begins with sense perception where there is only awareness of the object.

-          Then sceptical criticism of the senses, it becomes purely subjective and last it reaches the stage of self-knowledge where subject and object are no longer distinct

Self consciousness;

-          Is the highest form of knowledge possessed by the absolute, and the absolute is the while and nothing else exists outside itself for it to know.

-          Reason ‘is the conscious certainty of being all reality.’

o   Doesn’t mean a separate person is all of reality.

o   What is real in him is his participation in reality as a whole.

o   As we become more rational, this participation is increased.

-          The absolute idea, which the ‘logic ends is like Aristotles god – the absolute cannot think of anything but itself since there is nothi8ng else except the way s of apprehending reality.  

-           

SCHOPENHAUER –

-          He dislikes Christianity

-          He began emphasis on will- for him will, though metaphysically fundamental, is evil – an opposition only possible for a pessimist.

-          He acknowledges three sources of philosophy; Kant, Plato and Vpanishads.

-          His out has a temperamental affinity with the Hellenistic age, valuing peace more than victory, quientism more than reform, which he regards inevitability futile.

-          Anti democratic and hate the1848 revolution.

The world as will and idea; 1818

-          His system is an adaptation of Kant, but emphasises different aspects of the critique from others such as Hegel.

-          They removed the thing in itself, whereas Schop retained it and identified with it.

-          What appears to perception as my body is reality my will.

-          Kant maintained that the study of law could take us behind phenomenon and give us knowledge which sense perception cannot give ad is concerned with will.

-          The body is the appearance of which will is the reality, because the phenomenon corresponds to volition as a bodily movement.

-          The will behind phenomena cannot consist of a number of different volitions.

-          Time and space only belong to phenomena; the thing in itself is not in space or time – this idea is shared with Kant.

-          My will CANNOT be dated or composed of separate acts of will because it is space and time which are the source of plurality – my will, therefore, is one and timeless.

-          Will when relate to the will of the universe; ‘my separateness is an illusion resulting in my subjective apparatus if spatial-temporal perception.'

-          There is one vast will appearing in the whole course of nature, animate and inanimate alike.

-          The cosmic will is wicked; or at least a source of endless suffering.

-          Suffering is essential to all life an increase by knowledge.

-          Will has no fixed end, which is achieved, would bring contentment.

-          No such thing as happiness – an unfulfilled wish causes pain.

-          Instinct leads us to procreate, but we associate with the sexual act.

-          He believes in the idea of Nirvana.

-          The cause of suffering is the will; the less we exercise will the less we shall suffer.

-          Here knowledge is useful – but has to be of a certain kind.

-          Distinction of one man and another is part of the phenomenal world and disappears when the world is truly seen.

History and context of journalism lecture/reading six;

Nietzsche - The Birth of Tragedy;

The Birth of Tragedy outlines Nietzsche’s biases on what he believes to be true forms of art. He held great faith in the soul and, throughout, urges us to stop with Socratic pretences and accept Dionysus. He attacks the Greek state and suggests that it is naïve without the presence of Dionysus, and that the observer is never truly united with art because there is too much contemplation of the object, suggesting art should be accepted for what it is rather than thought about.

Apollo (essentially rationality) was there to shield men from the suffering of the world, providing relief and comfort. But this redemption of suffering is only achievable through Dionysus.

Nietzsche shows Dionysus to be and uplifting alternative to Christianity, which demands that man should focus not on life, instead accept it and immerse ourselves in the idea of heaven; to achieve Dionysus we must immerse ourselves in life. Though, Apollo is needed to reveal Dionysus through appearance.

The Birth of Tragedy outlines the progression of tragedy, emphasising the chorus and actors of a tragedy to be real, tragic art because Apollo and Dionysus are intrinsically entwined, mostly through music which he says is the life of tragic art. It allows us to rise beyond consciousness and experience a connection with Dionysus. Nietzsche believes music is superior to all art because it represents the ‘world will’ itself not phenomenon.

He sees Euripides as the murderer of art as he introduced Socratic obsession with knowledge and trust in human thought in theatre – he eliminated the musical element crucial to Dionysus destroying the balance of Dionysus and Apollo which he believes to be fundamental to art. Nietzsche outlines how original tragedy only consisted of Dionysus, it then transformed into an equal balance with the addition of music, then only to Apollo.

Elections and Democracy;

Parliament can run for up to five years, but during this time the prime minister is able to call an election whenever felt necessary (hen he/she feels the people are on their side), when the governing party no longer have a majority or if there is a vote of no confidence. Though before this happens the Queen must dissolve parliament.
Prime minster John Callaghan lost his position by one vote in a vote of confidence, this bought on the winter of discontent 1979.

The government at present have introduced fixed term elections of five years, meaning the next election (unless there is a vote of no confidence) will not take place until the 7th of May 2015.

To be able to vote, you must be registered on an electoral register of a constituency - there are around 45 million people in the country on a register and is therefore an incredibly useful tool for journalists when it come to finding people. Citizen abroad can vote, but not many do and there has been in a rise in the numbers of people voting by post - around 15% of all votes in 2005 were of this kind.
Though there are people who cannot vote at all; Those under 18 years of age, non British citizens (except those from Ireland and other commonwealth countries) and Prisoners, but this goes against European court rulings which says that criminals have the right to vote.

Representation of the peoples act made many changes as to who could vote over the years;
- 1918 - men over 21 and women over 30were able to vote.
- 1928 - universal suffrage - all adults over 21 were able to vote.
- 1969 - anyone over 18 years of age were then able to vote.

How do you win?
Any over the age of 18 can stand in an election, but winning comes down to who is 'First Past the Post'. 'FPTP' is a majoritarian voting system, which allows the MP with the most votes to be elected in each constituency, though this system does not reflect the national percentage of votes in the seats awarded to parties. In 2005, Labour won half of the seats in the commons but only had 35% of the votes. This system is also said to lead to tactical voting, it also allows the possibility of a hung parliament which other voting systems don't. This was the case in 2010 and resulted in a 'Con-Dem' coalition because neither Labour nor Conservative parties held majority of the seats in the Commons, raising arguments on how democratic the current government is because it isn't really a representation of the people.

Some would argue that we are in need of an electoral reform and should introduce a proportional representation system, such as AV, which will distribute seats in accordance with the national percentage of votes, through preference voting - when a constituents first choice of MP is no longer in the running, the second (or third and so on) preference vote is used and so it solves the problem of 'wasted votes.' The liberal democrats insisted on a referendum in 2011, as part of coalition agreements, to ask the nation whether they wanted change - the answer was no.

Spoiled voting papers in any election are disqualified, most votes are rejected because they have not been marked or because they have been marked too many times. Recounts of votes are allowed in cases where votes are incredibly close.

History and context of journalism lecture/reading five:

Seminar Paper - Bureaucracy; Max Weber

Marx, Nietzsche, Weber and Freud were described as the ‘big four’ skeptics of the 19^th century who based their thinking around Kantian ideas. They were great skeptics and strongly rejected the idea that things exist as we see them; instead we are under false consciousness. Emphasising the Kantian idea of ‘mind over matter.'

Though all similar in that thought, all approach the idea of ‘no absolute or absolute truth’ differently; Marx insists that class interest is the reason for what each person believes to be the truth. Nietzsche believed that we should never be obedient and what with think is true should be based on instinct; obedience is to keep us in place. Weber believes that truth is simply rationalisation which creates ease of bureaucratic agenda. 

The enlightenment of the 18^th century clouded faith in culture and caused pessimism among the people. Nietzsche believed that God was dead and the future will be filled with violence. Marx believed the people were adamant for Bonapartism which caused stagnation of society. Weber believed society was disillusioned and Freud believed we are in pursuit of our desires.

The Paris commune was seen as evidence of an uprising of a dictatorship of the proletariat, but after its sudden fall, a conservative approach was taken on by society, emphasising traditions and religion but most importantly for the French and Germans, the military grew strong, causing heightened racism, imperialism, social stagnation and anti-Semitism up until the First World War. It was at this time Prussia evolved into the German, bureaucratic state. 

Prussian bureaucracy (government by many administrators or officials) had many great benefits at the time. New jobs were created which improved social status and formed a new class; the middle class, dismissing Marx’s’ ideas of polarisation and showing there were many things he did not consider, such as loaning money to the proletariat so that they became part of the middle class and owning shares in large companies similar to his ideas of common ownership and ownership of capitalism. This form of government pushed imperialism to its peak with Africa being possessed. It also meant state intervention in economics, leading to strict regulation which outlined a ruling class ideology; values of the bourgeoisie were spread downwards by passing on culture - the opera was adapted to attract the middle class in the form of theatre. Though German social democracy was at its peak and introduced the foundations of a welfare state. At this time Max Weber began his analysis of bureaucracy.

Max Weber was a German socialist who believed in Kantian philosophy; that objects in themselves have no absolute reality, and held a non-teleological view of existence; that things happen at random and we are not headed toward a final purpose.

His analysis suggests that bureaucracy is characterised by a hierarchical division of labour directed by explicit rules, impersonally applied, staffed by professionals, who do not in any sense own the 'means of administration' and live off a salary, not from income directly from the performance of their job. He attacked Prussian bureaucracy to be an objective and neutral servant of society, and emphasized that every bureaucracy has interests of its own, feeding off of 'Credentialism'(the preoccupation evident in modern societies with formal educational qualifications). He believed that credentials, a fixed salary and stability of staffing are required “for the efficient functioning of an administrative machine.”

For weber, there are ideal types of sociological organisation; socialism, nationalism, liberalism etc. and that behind them is a method and hypothesis and successive approximation of truth. He then compared this to social reality and came to the conclusion that there is no absolute knowledge but it is possible to be honest and have reason to able the belief. This is known as agnosticism.

He furthered his ideas of sociological ideals with his analysis of what he what he believed to be four types of fundamental social action;

1.      Instrumental – the belief that our actions are rational in order to achieve goodness; going to university will generally get you a good job.

2.      Value – the idea of doing something because it is accepted to be good practice, and is again an example of rationalisation.

3.      Affectual – Something we do for emotional reasons.

4.      Traditional – this is something we do because society has always done it.

He also outlined that bureaucracy manifests impersonal application of general rules; to Weber this is the most important feature of bureaucracy. It underlies the fact that bureaucrats do not own their equipment or their job, and receive a salary because these things ensure reliable rule-following. And so categorises legitimate authority into three types of domination; 

1.      Tradition Authority - Figures who have always commanded respect over the ages so we continue the tradition, also linked to patriarchy.

2.      Charismatic - These are figures we follow or obey because they have a dynamic way of presenting their arguments and opinions. Although on many occasions, this type of authority merges with the traditional kind. (Weber emphasises the rationality of bureaucracy in charisma and traditional authority. Charismatic behaviour is whichever method is well-adapted as a means to one's ends and can be irrational and rational. But value rationality is used to rationalise those goals. Weber usually sees rationality as a form of efficiency).

3.      Legal Rational/Bureaucratic - Figures who are above us in rank and only command respect if they themselves follow the rules they preach.

Weber sees bureaucracy as a supremely efficient way of conducting administration, hence why it is used within capitalism and in institutions. It allows institutions to out-perform competitors and continues to spread because of its survival value for social institutions. But views it as a ‘distasteful triumph’ and identified negative impacts bureaucracy may have on society. 

He believed that there will be cultural exhaustion through the rationalisation of religion, that the principle of formal equality will eventually rob each individual of nobility and any artistic genius, the prevalence of the central principles of the renaissance and enlightenment would be destroyed; Nobody would be able to live outside of the state and we will eventually lose sense of creativity. There would be a sense of de-skilling and rationalisation of the production line.

Weber views bureaucracy in a similar way that Marx views Capitalism. Its spread is inevitable and will affect all areas of life. Though Marx insists capitalism can be overthrown for the good of the people, Weber believes and accepts bureaucracy is inescapable.

Party Politics;

Today's lecture outlined the significant rises and fall of the Labour Party and Conservative Party, conflicts between the two and reforms and bills which changed British politics from the 19th century to the present day.

 

The 19^th century bought with it harsh living and working conditions with poverty at extreme levels because of the growth of the population. The industrial revolution was in full swing and demand for production was at its peak. These conditions caused the people to become conscious and began to realise what they wanted and to get that a revolution was need. The French revolution is a significant reflection of politics this century, but the UK by passed such revolution because their politics was considered to be more ‘sophisticated’ and willing to compromise. This is show through the Reform Act of 1832, which shifted representation towards towns and the north.  From here the Corn Laws were repealed and the tory vs Whig system ended with influences from John Stuart Mill.

J.S.Mill, outlined what was later named ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ freedom (by Isaiah Berlin) and believed that freedom should enrich the lives of the individual not curtail it. He accepted members of the working class needed help and this came in form of positive liberty, using the state as a tool to give means for true freedom (welfare).

Voting reforms began and women and the working class were entitled to the vote and franchise acts were increased.  But the improving conditions of the working class meant they began to demand greater things from the government up until the First World War, which began the rise of the Labour party influenced by the German social democrats. In 1926 there were national strikes and bought with the unrest was a resurgence of conservative politic in the years of the depression.

The Second World War made way for the first labour government which had a secure majority and bought with it may social reforms which included the formation of the NHS, Keynesian economics*, trade unions etc. as well as the dismantling of the British empire. But this was of great shock to the War time conservative leader, Churchill, who was sure to become Prime Minister. The Attlee Government was most famous for the implication of the Beveridge report. Even though Beveridge was a modern liberal, he wished for social justice and in the report wished for compulsory public funded system of education, healthcare, pensions and social security.

In the 1970’s disaster struck for the labour party; the people demand industrial power to be reduced and companies to be privatised in a general strike because of Callaghan’s attempt to limit pay rises to curb inflation. The answer to the peoples demands was Margaret Thatcher; a new right conservative combining neo liberal economics with traditional conservative values, who had a motive to attack the minors to prove that she was not the woman to mess with and send a warning to other smaller unions. The privatisation of companies and de-regulation of the markets caused a boom in economics and people began spending and borrowing more than ever before, but her drive to keep unions at bay cause uproar. Her ideal society was a meritocracy and demanded that people work to achieve rewards.  There was a major clash between left and right wing politics in the 80’s with Kinnocks manifesto being described as the ‘longest suicide note in history’, campaigning against Thatcher. He wanted to get rid of nuclear weapons, nationalise companies and higher taxes.

Thatcher’s days as prime minister were bought to an end by John Majors ‘back to basics’ campaign which stood for family values, honesty and traditional British values. But his cabinet was made up of sleazy MP’s, which meant a boom for tabloid press and the use of public interest libel defence because of the contraction between MP’s behaviour and Majors Manifesto.

Jonathan Aitken, a guardian journalist was jailed for Perjury because he lied on oath about his dealings; he claimed he would use a "sword of truth" to end the lies spread by the media at this time.

In 1997 the people of the UK chose a new government in the form of New Labour, with Blair winning by a major landslide. New labour changed what the labour party stood for, amending clause four to what Blair considered fit for modern society, and becoming part of ‘third way’ politics. It is identifiable that there are barely any socialist intentions left with the New Labour Party, they have changed views of social justice to emphasize ‘equality of opportunity’ rather than other socialist views of ‘equality of outcome’ or ‘absolute equality’, but have retained the welfare state.

History and Context of Journalism Lecture/Reading Four;

The Dreyfus Affair and J'accuse;

The Dreyfus affair played an important part in establishing the powers of journalism - keeping tabs on the powerful. 
The events that lead up to the affair were the defeat of Sedan 1874 and the Paris commune.
The defeat of Sedan 1871was the result of the Franco-Prussian war; Napoleon was dragged into the war without any allies. He was defeated and captured at Sedan. The French army failed the country, despite how proud of the army they were. Those in Paris chose to keep faith in the french and defy the Prussians, instead of backing down like the rest of France and paying them compensation for a war they were tricked into. They were also forced to give up the key industrial provinces', Alsace and Corrine.
The Prussians became the Germans in 1871 and had Paris surrounded throwing more problems at the french; lack of food and a humiliated army.
The Paris Commune;
As landlords returned, rent was demanded with interest. The new government were demanding a monarchy, but the people feared that this would spur on another war and so this lead to a revolt. The people fought back between March 18th and May 28th 1871. in a way that would be described as the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, dropping the government and working together for the masses. Though, the formation was essentially a council, but gave a lot of power to women at the time meaning new reforms for women's suffrage scaring the monarchies greatly. Leading to the destruction of the commune- 20 to 30,000 people were executed and highlighted the significance of the power of the people, and women were targeted because of their new powers, people were found guilty for being in Paris; the monarchies fought back. It changed European politics dramatically; what Marx had written years before was shown to be almost achievable, yet at the same time showed the consequences of ignoring the monarchy.
The Dreyfus affair;
The army was in a fragile state because of the overseas empires of 1874. The Jews were beginning to be blamed for undermining French greatness and the Parma council bribe from them absent money; sparking anti-antisemitism. The french were still paranoid about another war and so their military gathered spies for all European countries.
The affair itself pit the right against the left; Army and Catholics were against (anti Dreyfusards), the republicans and the Jews were for (Dreyfusards).
 The secret information of the French was found in the German embassy, passed on to the military and found by French spies and were determined to find out who had betrayed them - the army implicated Capitain Dreyfus - he was a Jew, intelligent  and from Alsace (almost foreign). He was found guilty of treason, then banished to Devils Island in 1894.
After Dreyfus' conviction, an officers declares that the defence is wrong, but the supervisors do not care because Dreyfus is a Jew. The court took the case to trial officer called Esterhazy he was tried but then acquitted.
A journalist Emile Zola wrote the famous article J'accuse, which named the men who wrongly convicted Dreyfus. But was then convicted of libel. He fled then fled to London after anti Jew riots were popping up all over France, right wing news papers called for the removal of all Jews citizenship.  The army being to see weaknesses in documents of the case and saw it was weak. An officer called Henry was praised for patriot forgery and described as a martyr to the Jewish syndicate. A change of government brings Dreyfus back to France, but he is found guilty once again with "extenuating circumstances".
 

Lazare; Anti-Semitism and Nationalism

-          A nation is described as an agglomeration of individuals who have shared language, religion territory , law, customs, manners, spirit and historic mission.Though many question this and argue that a nation is purely a concept not of reality.

-          The nation continues as long as this self-consciousness and the consciousness of the community of thought and interest have not disappeared. This is important for the Jews because they do not have a father land. Instead they are integrated into other nations. This is where anti-Semitism can spring from.

-          The Jew does not exist as a race, rather a nation with various elements possessing unity.

-          The Jewish nation stays strong because of religion, social condition and the external conditions forced upon them.

-          To be part if this nation one has to accept that god and the laws emanating from him.

-          Torah; outlines laws of God. Then became the laws of Israel.

-          The Jews have lived like a people who had a fatherland of its own.

-          Their education preserved their traditions, as well as their language and lived in similar conditions sharing their religion which all constitutes a nation.

-          Though, they have ever considered themselves exiles and have deluded themselves with a dream of restoration if Israel’s kingdom on earth.

-          They have preserved ancient patriotism, even their chauvinism, despite disasters and misfortunes, and have religiously kept the idea of their supremacy. Looking with disdain upon all who are strangers to this law.

-          Talmud taught them to be this way (considered antisocial and the most abominable code of law and ethics).

-          This law is very different from those of the countries they live and they follow their own codes, before those of that country.

-           Anti-Semitism was one of the ways the peoples would try to reduce these strange individualities.

-          Jews appeared a danger they were a people whose mentality did not agree with the national mentality, whose concepts were opposed to that ensemble of social and intellectual conceptions which constitutes nationality.