Media Concepts revision notes.

Multiple choice questions:

Mass culture theory:

-          Pierre Bourdieu; asks how logic of taste and preference work challenges notions of innate taste or ‘authentic’ sensibilities.

-          Different forms of culture provide different forms of pleasure.

-          Tastes and notions of quality are socially constructed. Used differently by different groups to gain status.

-          Cultural Capital; invest into consumption practices- acquiring status – producing symbolic capital of power. Can be acquired through education and its value can shift when context is changed.

Saussure/Signs – semiotics:

-          Language not just a way of classifying objects in an external world

-          Words only have meaning as parts of systems  i.e. languages

-          Langue = the system or language

-          Parole = actual utterances of words

-          Signifier (concept)+signified (word)=sign

-          Signs only have meaning within particular systems of meaning

-          Denotation and connotation.

-          Pierce: Symbolic; signs in which the relationship between the sign and its meaning are totally arbitary, Iconic; signs that resemble their meaning in some way, and Indexical signs; signs that indicate what they stand for.

Structuralism (Wright, Eco, Barthes):

-          Propp - 'narratemes' - he designed a structure of narratemes made up of 8 character roles, and 31 basic narratemes.

-          Todorov supports Propp, claiming all stories have the same universal formal properties.

-          Wright = westerns and Eco = James Bond.

Fabula/syuzhet  (Bordwell):

-          Fabula is deducted from Syuzhet

-          Syuzhet is an employment of narrative and fabula is the chronological order of the retold events.

Genre Theory:

-          Another way to explore the media text constructed meaning.

-          Genre is a signifying system; a paradigm (lists of possible signs from which particular signs are selected to form syntagms).

-          Agents of ‘ideological closure’

-          Limit meaning potential; ‘Contract’ between producer and audiences as to content; Annoying when broken.

-          There are usually generic features to genres. But there is also genre hybridity.

-          Genre changes and develops over time.

Political economy:

-          To fully understand media and cultural texts we have to examine the material conditions in which they are produced

-          Relate texts to wider social relationships and power

-          Hard power - control of capital, military, legal systems, etc.

-          Soft power - symbols, discourses, the cultural and semiological

-          Power – works at three levels

-          1. The ability to influence decisions

-          2. The ability to set the agenda in the first place

-          3. Structural power  - the effect an institution has by simply ‘being there’

Hegemony

-          Power – works at three levels

-          The ability to influence decisions

-          The ability to set the agenda in the first place

-          Structural power  - the effect an institution has by simply ‘being there’

-          Hegemony - when popular ideas or ‘common sense’ reflect the interests of the powerful ideology. Also known as ‘culturalism’.

-          Hegemony never finally secured.

-          Resistance to dominant ideologies. Media and cultural texts can be sites of resistance.

Stuart Hall:

-          Popular culture; he suggests the boundaries of popular culture become a site of contestation.

-          Constructions of art are merely weapons of power struggle.

-          Encoding and decoding model;

-          Dominant : Share's the text's code, and accepts/reproduces the text.

-          Negotiated - partly shares the codes but may resist/modify the code to reflect their own life

-          Oppositional - understands the reading but does not share/deal with it.

Lister:

-          Audience identity; new media-virtual reality.

-          Identities and communities online; new media provides new ways of experiencing self and relating to groups in society. ‘In touch but, never touching. As deeply connected as they are profoundly alienated.  

-        Being anonymous; different mediation allow is to express different parts of our identity. Different communications effect how we present ourselves.

-          Belonging; online communities create a sense of belonging and use them as an antidote to social fragmentation.

The Chicago school:

-          Offer a mode of regulation: law; social norms; the market; architecture.

-          Social norms; the prescribed and proscribed forms of media of behaviour. They aren’t administered through authority.

-          Markets; availability and prices regulate by effecting how we consume or produce. Independent of laws and social norms.

-          Architecture; forms of constraints that prevent us doing things – passwords regulate our use of networks. They are pre-action constraints – social norms and law are post action constraints.

-          Changes to one will affect the regulated activity, they all regulate to different degrees.

Narrative:

-          A communicative act – narrative involves a ‘teller’ and a ‘listener’.

-          All narratives involve a sequence of events (they are located in time).

-          All narratives are constructed.

Framing and priming:

-          Framing: helps to construct the ‘preferred’ reading. It’s the media perspective.

-          Priming: endorses certain responses to active certain thoughts (in the preferred readers mind)

Computer mediated communications:

-          The separation between reality and online reality.

-        

Todorov – structuralism

-          Believes there are common structures in the narrative of a story. Equilibrium – disequilibrium –equilibrium.

-          The structure of narratives tends to suggest that the restitution of the status quo is ‘normal’ and ‘appropriate’

-          Suggests ideology.

Barthes

-          Believes narratives have up to 5 distinct codes operating below the surface.

-          This includes enigma code (meaning) - this activates the viewer or readers interest in guessing the meaning or ending.

-          Enigmas or ‘puzzles’ are introduced, resolved, reintroduced.

-          Symbolic codes (through which stories are symbolically represented)

-          Cultural codes – narratives frequently draw upon ‘authoritative knowledge’ or popular shared assumptions.

-          Myth - wrestling

-          Myth is political and ideological.

-          Codes which are taken for granted and seen not as codes but as ‘natural.

-          Signs placed in different codes operate in different ways

Uses and gratifications

-          Katz and Blumer.

-          Audience can control media exposure.

-          People use media for what they want, his may be complex and conflicting.

-          May be expressed in different ways:

-          1. To reinforce existing views

-          2. To identify opposing views

-          3. To be immersed in a community

-          4. To escape reality

Chomsky and Herman:

-          Outlined a propaganda model; focuses on the effects of US capitalist ideology on agenda setting in the media.

-          They said there were five main filters or ways media is given consent in society.

-          By size, concentrated ownership, owner wealth and profit orientation of the dominant mass media firms.

-          By advertising as the primary income source of the mass media.

-          By the reliance on the media on information provided by government, business and experts.

-          By ‘flak’ as means of disciplining the media.

-          By anticommunism as control of mechanism.

-          ‘Flak’refers to negative responses to media or news programmes. The ability to produce flack is the greatest for the powerful institutions most committed to the capitalist cause.

-          Media professionals are puppets of capitalism.

-          Everything media professionals do can be explained in terms of ideology and its effects.

-          Ideology explains media effects take many theoretical forms.

-          Suggest there is a ruling class and that this ruling class controls the media and their effects.

News Writing: 'hit' or 'collision'

We were asked to write a news story from a sussex police press release, this is what i came up with;

A 13-year-old boy died after being hit by a car in sussex, yesterday afternoon.
The 62-year-old driver and his passenger, were both uninjured. The boy was rushed to East Surrey Hospital with serious injuries, where he later died.
The driver of the Land Rover was arrested, at the scene, on suspicion of careless driving and has been released on bail until January.

In one of the examples Brian chose to show to the group, 'hit by a car' was discussed to decide whether or not it was the right phase to use as opposed to 'collision'. Turns out we can, but can sometimes be a problem because it suggests there is someone to blame and is defamatory.
Mentioning the car was a Land Rover was bought up; it doesn't need to be included because what car it was is irrelevant, speed is, even though Land Rovers are bigger cars and look as though they could do more damage than your average smart car....

History and context of journalism lecture/reading five:

Seminar Paper.

David Hume:

David Hume was an 18^th century philosopher, during the Scottish enlightenment. He was in favor of John Locke’s ideas and theories in terms of empiricism but built on them to create extreme form of empiricism.

Empiricism is the belief that all knowledge comes from the senses, there is no innate knowledge. David Hume was a believer in scepticism which is the idea that there is no such thing as true knowledge and that the real world is unknowable. Hume concluded that the only claims we can make about the world are those that place human existence in the center of reality, because human existence is the closest we can ever be to the truth. From his strong belief in human knowledge from experience the ‘Bundle theory’ came about which suggests the features of objects are they only what exist, there is no actual object, which leads to his doubt in ‘self’.

One of Hume’s well known book is ‘Treaties of Human Nature’. It is divided into three books and begins by distinguishing between ‘impressions’ and ‘ideas’, as does ‘An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding’. ‘Impressions’ and ‘ideas’ are considered perceptions but impressions (sensations) have more force and violence.  Hume says ‘By ideas I mean the faint images of these in thinking and reasoning.’ Ideas, for Hume, are simple and similar to impressions but much fainter. ‘Every idea has a simple impression…every simple impressions has a corresponding idea.’ Complex ideas do not resemble impression because it is believed that impressions come before, from experience.

‘Of abstract ideas’ outlines the difference between the kinds of ideas he believes there to be. General ideas are seen a particular ones, connected to a term that gives it extensive significance and makes us recall things similar to them. Hume’s describes abstract ideas as ‘individual’ but may become general through their representations. There are said to be defects in his theory; one logical the other psychological. The logical objection is that there can be several objects of which share resemblance. The psychological objection is that it ignores vagueness. Vagueness is different from generality, but shares some characteristics.

Hume then banished the concept of substance from psychology in saying there is no impression of self and therefore no idea of self. Though he contradicts himself in saying some philosophers have the ability to perceive themselves. The idea of ‘self’ is of great importance and Hume argues that if the self is such a thing it is never perceived, therefore we can have no idea of it. Suggesting we must have an idea of self. Such ideas are interferences of perceptions and are not among the logically basic ideas; they are complex and descriptive. If Hume’s principle that ideas are derived from impressions the argument must be correct. If the principle is rejected we are forced back on ‘innate’ ideas.  Though all psychological knowledge can be stated without introducing the self; the ‘self’, Hume describes, is a bundle of perceptions, not a new simple ‘thing.’ It does not determine that there is no simple self but follows the idea that we cannot know whether there is or is not and ‘self’ cannot enter into part of our knowledge. 

Hume’s most important ideas are around ‘knowledge and probability’. For Hume, probability is uncertain knowledge, such as what is obtained from empirical data by interferences that aren’t demonstrative. This includes our knowledge of future and unobserved times in the past and present – everything but direct observations.

Hume came to sceptical conclusions after his analysis of knowledge and defines seven kinds of philosophical relation: resemblance, identity, relations of time and place, proportion of quantity for number, degrees in any quantity, contrariety and causation. These are then divided into two kinds; those that depend only on the ideas and those that can be changed without any change of idea. Resemblance, proportion of quantity for number, degrees in any quantity and contrariety are of the first kind and give certain knowledge; our knowledge concerning other is only probable – when we remember, our ideas are copied from our impressions. The three remaining relations, identity, relations of time and place and causation depend not only on our ideas. For the first two, the mind does not go beyond what is available to the senses whereas causation alone enables us to infer some thing or occurrence from some other thing or occurrence. Difficulties arise when Hume suggests there is no such this as an impression of a causal relation. We perceive by observation of A and B, that A is to the right of B, but we do not see that A causes B.

Hume’s theory that ‘cause’ is really the perception of things constantly being conjoined in the past is backed up by his definition of ‘belief’. Belief is considered, by Hume, to be a lively idea related to or associated with a present impression. Through association, if A and B been constantly conjoined, the impression of A constitutes a lively impression of B which is belief in B. 

Adam Smith:

Smith is described as an extreme empiricist, like Hume, and as a materialist. He thoroughly studied human behavior and society, describing people as being like machines, and of human society of consisting of ‘levers’ and ‘devices’ where one action creates another.  Morality was also raised by Adam Smith’s analysis; which he believed to be a sense data and internal psychological (vanity or self-regard). He believed this vanity should just be accepted as part of society and in policy rather than try to tame it with laws; to Smith believed laws will only fail or create more problems. To Smith, people are conflicted and complex. The central conflict is between what he calls ‘self love’ and ‘vanity’ which people desire for pleasure. Smiths view of human nature is reflected in his idea of the hidden hand of the market.  The hidden hand of the market is based on the free market economic system which Smith believed to be the ultimate tool of success for business, if the laws of the free market are denied is a doomed enterprise. Universal wealth leads to poverty. He believed there is no such thing as human need, instead there is want.

Wealth, to Smith, is not simple the accumulation of money, but is something he feels to be gained through life experiences of civilization and by trade. Accumulation of wealth is believed to have a ‘trickle down’ effect on society, as it provides jobs for the less wealthy and seen more able to develop civilization because of their cultural hobbies.

News Writing:

What is news?
- It is new or has a 'news peg'/ 'angle' - don't write about issues!
- Could be soft news or hard news.
- News is about people doing things.

Editorial reasons:
- availability: there must be someone to interview and someone thing to record or take pictures of - quotes and pictures are key to a story.
- Do people care about? is it relevant to the audience?
- Should it be dramatic or simple?
- Does it tap into certain current obsession?

Practical reasons:
- is there space?
- has a similar story been covered recently?
- has it been sucessfully pitched?
- must be 100% true, facts must be checked and beyond doubt. A story must have balance.

How to write a news story:
Who? What? Where? When? Why?
The news pyramid:
- Intro: short and sharp - latest most important information (who?, what?, where?, when?).
- Two: elaboration of other important information or quotes.
- Three: chronology, more detail (why?).
- Four: more detail, loose ends.

Key elements:
- Its about people - topline.
- Dont be passive - have an angle (think about audience - demographics)
- Don't start with a question - the audience want to be informed.
- Be objective - no opinion.
- Quote people.

Sentences:
- One idea.
- Short sentences.
- Use active, not passive, verbs. News is about people doing things.
- Get rid of non-essential words.
- Avoid the drop intro.
- The first words are vitial.
- Use verb and nouns, not adverbs and adjectives.
- Cut out gobbledygook.

Winol Review; 17/11 Bulletin

This weeks Winol, and the previous week, have improved considerably in terms of continuity and framing, looking more professional overall. Although it was quite obvious that many of the shots were used in previous episodes, in the housing and union strike stories.
The main story of the bulletin, youth unemployment, was very well researched and presented. But from the set up of the shot gave the impression it was supposed to replicate a comfortable chat, though instead it just seemed like information was just being given and to some could be a little overwhelming to some people because of the constant stats.

Law Lecture/reading eight: Freedom of information act

The freedom of information act 2000:
The freedom of information act gives individuals the power to require 'public authorities' to disclose information which wouldnt usually be published. The information requested must be supplied without charge, except if it costs the governmental department more than £600 or £450 for other authorities.
In the past, it had been requested that government disclose the attorney generals advice on the legality of the UK taking part in the invasion of Iraq. and an early draft of a controversial dosser published by the government to justify the invasion. 
The freedom of information act is a worldwide and helpful tool for journalists.

 Under the act, public authorities are considered to be:
- national government departments
- the house of commons, house of lords and NI/Welsh assemblies
- armed forces
- local government authorities
- national parks
- Universities, Colleges and schools
- NHS
- Advisory and regulatory bodies.

Some institutions and agencies are not covered by the act:
- UK's security and intelligence agencies are not requiired to respond to requests.
- courts and tribunals not covered, neither are housing associations, private prisons, charities, members of parliament and schools with academy status.

The FOI act works by responding to requests of information within 20 days, this can either be the information itself or explantions as to why the information cannot be given.
If information cannot given, it may be becuase
- that particular authority does not hold that information.
- it would exceed the costs limits for free information.
- its covered by exemptions under the act and doesn't need to be supplied.
The information that is held by an authority should be checked before making the request, this information is required to be shown in a 'publication scheme'

Public authorities are required by section 16 of the act to give those requesting the information advice and assistance. When someone is making a request, they should be told before the request what information of the type wanted, is available and should be given advice to avoid exceeding the cost limit for the information so they do not receive a charge.

The Daily Mail; 'Femail' demographic

The Daily Mail is a well-established newspaper, with its form being midway between the broadsheet, through the style of news articles, and tabloid topics and features. Its main demographic, in terms of social status, would be the C1, C2 and D categories; it is stereotypically assumed that this group of people enjoy the tabloid style, of which majority of the newspaper content appears to be.  Thought the Daily Mails general target audience can be narrowed down to women, within the above social codes, and of middle to older age group. Various aspects of the newspaper will help to demonstrate this as well as the newspaper’s history; being one of the first newspapers to include articles on things, such as cookery and fashion, which interested women.

The main aspect of the Daily Mail that highlights its female demographic is the everyday and weekend magazines ‘Femail’ and ‘You.’ The articles within these are features about ‘womanly’ things including fashion, cookery and lifestyle articles such as ‘could you spot your body shape?’ The content appears to be written by women, include women’s experiences and comment.  Articles like this allow women be reassured by others who have the same worries as them, rather than a sex who feel ostracized by the medias image of the ‘perfect’ woman.  A weekly breakdown of the paper highlights its aim at females:  Monday; Life Style, Tuesday: Good Health, Thursday; Femail Magazine, Friday; It's Friday and Saturday; Escape and the Weekend Magazine.Statistics show that during the week, 53% of the readership is female. 

Throughout the newspaper, the advertisements are to a more ‘womanly’ appeal, particularly those with families. There is a repetition of large supermarkets adverts, which compete with prices and deals, as well as, offers for children’s toys and party clothing, which reflect the needs and wants of a stereotypical woman around the Christmas period. The offers suggest a certain appeal to the lower income that comes with the social codes.  These advertisements are also online and appear more glamorous in advertorials themed for Christmas.

The online version of the Daily Mail appears even more feminine than the newspaper; the homepage has links to the features in the woman’s magazines, highlighted in pink, as well as articles generally aimed at women. 

In terms of capturing a male readership the sport, and ‘city and finance’ sections of the paper, seem to take up a considerably smaller capacity, compared with the ‘Femail’ and womanly features.  Though, with the Mail on Sunday, there is a male magazine, ‘Live’, full of male orientated features and the latest gadgets, suggesting there is effort made to attract a male audience and is successful, with a 2% rise in male readers (to 49%) on a Sunday. But the larger appeal to women could raise the thought that patriarchy is still very prominent in society today, and how it used by the media to get women to conform to certain ideas and stereotypes of liking pink and enjoying shopping.